Literature review calls attention to “evidence gaps on the impacts of climate change for topics, world regions, and groups of children that should be high priorities”With half of the world’s 2.2 billion children living in countries at extremely high risk from climate change, and climate impacts expected to intensify over time, climate change threatens to further exacerbate global inequalities in child health. Despite these growing risks, existing literature reviews have largely examined individual domains of children’s well-being, with limited attention to the interconnected effects of climate change. Existing syntheses have also focused primarily on the impacts of climate change, with less attention to how mitigation and adaptation efforts affect children. Further, few studies have engaged young people, despite the 2023 General Comment on the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child affirming children’s right to participate in decisions related to climate change. To address these gaps, this literature review mapped the global evidence on how climate change and climate-related mitigation and adaptation efforts affect children’s well-being. The review also incorporated youth perspectives to explore the findings and identify priorities for future research and action.
The researchers searched academic databases to identify studies examining child (age 0–18) well-being in the context of climate change impacts, mitigation, or adaptation. The search was guided by a conceptual framework developed by The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change, which categorized climate change impacts as direct effects (changes in temperature, humidity, and precipitation, extreme weather, and marine effects) and indirect effects (air pollution, vector patterns, ecosystem disruption, food insecurity, displacement, immobility, conflict, exploitation, and economic impacts). A variety of study designs were eligible for inclusion in the review, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies, as well as systematic and scoping reviews. Only studies published from 2014 to 2024 were considered. Studies were included if: (1) 50% or more of the study population were children under 18 years (including fetuses); (2) 50% or more of the age range studied was between 0 years and 18 years; or (3) a child-specific subgroup analysis was conducted. The search yielded 1127 studies, including 1027 primary studies, 30 scoping reviews, and 70 systematic reviews, all of which were included in the review. The primary studies were mainly conducted in the US (22%), China (14%), India (6%), and Australia (6%). Nineteen percent of the primary studies were conducted in the 33 countries identified as being at extremely high risk from climate change, mainly Bangladesh (6%), Kenya (5%), and Nigeria (4%). The review also involved collaboration with a youth advisory board. Four youth advisory board members (age 16–17) from the Children in All Policies 2030 project participated in online discussions that explored their perspectives on the impacts of climate change on children’s well-being, the review’s findings, and future research priorities.
Findings centered on mapping the existing research to identify research focus areas and remaining gaps. Among studies that examined child well-being outcomes, the vast majority focused on child health (84%). Other well-being domains examined included education and employment (15%), food security and nutrition (14%), agency and resilience (9%), displacement, immobility, and connectedness (5%), socioeconomic distress (5%), and safety, conflict, violence, and exploitation (4%). Among child health studies, 13% focused on mortality outcomes and 84% on morbidity-related (illness and disease) outcomes. Morbidity outcomes included maternal and neonatal disorders (21%), mental disorders (19%), chronic respiratory diseases (15%), and gastrointestinal infections (12%). To a lesser degree, studies examined developmental outcomes, climate-related anxiety, psychological distress, and sleep-related outcomes. Of all reviewed studies, 84% focused on the impacts of climate change rather than mitigation or adaptation. Most climate impact studies examined direct impacts (77%), mainly resulting from changes in temperature, humidity, precipitation, and extreme weather events. Direct impact studies focused on children’s health (83%). The indirect impacts of climate change on child well-being were investigated by 23% of all studies. Over half of indirect impact studies examined air pollution effects. Other indirect outcomes included ecosystem disruption, food insecurity, economic shocks, displacement, immobility, conflict, or exploitation, and changing vector patterns. Studies focused on the effects of mitigation or adaptation mainly examined education and training (45%), practice or behavior (31%), and planning or resource management (19%). Climate change mitigation and adaptation studies were largely focused on child health outcomes (including mental health). To a lesser degree, mitigation and adaptation studies examined education and employment or agency and resilience outcomes. Research examining the effects of physical infrastructure, technology, green and blue infrastructure, clean energy, and policy and legislation was limited.
Discussion with the Youth Advisory Board confirmed several limitations in the research and identified additional priorities. Overall, youth emphasized “the importance of schools, social media, and intergenerational dialogue in driving climate action while protecting children’s well-being.” They highlighted the potential for schools to strengthen climate change and sustainability education, noting that current approaches often prioritize the scientific dimensions of climate change while giving less attention to its societal impacts and potential solutions. Youth were also surprised by the relatively small number of studies examining the links between climate change and socioeconomic distress, migration, and mental health beyond post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Social media was viewed as both a source of climate anxiety and an important resource for engaging in climate activism. Finally, youth emphasized the importance of normalizing intergenerational dialogue in climate action and policymaking and expressed a strong desire for their voices to be heard.
The review provides the first global map of evidence on climate change and children’s well-being. Notably, only one-fifth of the reviewed studies focused on countries at extremely high risk from climate change. Most research examined the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on children’s health, followed by education, food security, and nutrition. However, important domains—including children’s agency and resilience, displacement, socioeconomic distress, and safety—remain underexamined. These findings highlight “evidence gaps on the impacts of climate change for topics, world regions, and groups of children that should be high priorities.” Research on climate change mitigation and adaptation has also received limited attention. Strengthening the evidence on how mitigation and adaptation efforts affect children is essential to addressing current policy gaps, which often overlook their needs and perspectives. In addition, few studies examine how intersecting characteristics, such as age, gender, and other factors, shape children’s vulnerability to climate change. Future research should meaningfully engage children and young people in defining research priorities and shaping climate action.
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