High self-esteem is related to a host of benefits, including positive moods, resilience, and initiative. Outdoor-based therapeutic experiences for at-risk youth are widely recognized as a means by which to raise their self-esteem levels. Increased self-esteem, however, may also be associated with several negative outcomes. For example, some research indicates that increased self-esteem may be associated with increased bias and prejudice against other groups, physical and verbal aggression, and engagement in a range of risky behaviors including drug and alcohol use. There is evidence to suggest that these negative outcomes can be prevented through the pursuit of increased self-esteem in a way that does not stress self-esteem as an end goal, but is focused on skill development and positive relationships with others. Existing research has shown outdoor interventions positively affect self-esteem. Developmental sail-training programs are one type of outdoor intervention specifically based on teamwork among program participants. Self-esteem increases resulting from participation in sail-training programs can persist months after program completion. The current paper summarizes three studies investigating the effects of a ten-day developmental sail-training voyage in New Zealand on self-esteem in adolescents and associated negative outcomes. The primary purpose of the set of studies was to establish whether or not self-esteem could be raised and sustained in adolescents, without associated negative outcomes.
The first study was designed to measure self-esteem and gender prejudice. Study participants (n=60) were made up of two groups: 27 adolescents, each from a different high school in New Zealand, who completed a developmental sail-training voyage, and 33 New Zealand high school students who did not complete the voyage. The sail-training voyage is ten days long and is carefully designed to minimize distractions and facilitate inclusion, new relationships, and equal social status. On the sail-training voyage, participants learn to sail, but the main purpose is youth development and the promotion of inclusion, support, and self-efficacy. Every participant belongs to a group called a watch, made up of five males and five females, throughout the course of the voyage. These groups work together on goals and leaders rotate daily. There are four sail stations through which watches rotate and learn sailing methods. There are no showers for personal hygiene. Participants must swim around the vessel every morning, participate in chores, and sometimes go to shore for activities. Participants gain knowledge, experience, and responsibility throughout the course of the voyage, and, by the ninth day, run the ship without staff input or help.
Self-esteem (SE) and gender prejudice were measured on the first and last day of the voyage, and among the control group approximately ten days apart. SE was assessed with the Self-Description Questionnaire Short Form (SDQ III), which measures overall SE and various subscales, including math, general schoolwork, religion/spirituality, global self, honesty, opposite sex relations, same sex relations, parental relations, physical appearance, physical ability, verbal ability, emotional stability, and problem-solving ability. Gender prejudice was assessed with researcher-created trait-ratings scales. The study sample was 56.7% female and average age was 16.21 years old (voyage participants) and 16.25 years old (control group). As hypothesized, SE increased and gender prejudice decreased from baseline to the end of the voyage for voyage participants; no changes occurred in the control group. There was no follow-up to examine whether or not these changes persisted, so the researchers conducted a replication study with the addition of follow-up measures at four to five months.
The sample in the second study (n=106) was 55.7% female and the average age was 16.38 years old for voyage participants (n=59) and 16.34 for the control group (n=47). SE and gender prejudice was assessed with the same measures described above at four time points for voyage participants: 3-4 weeks before the voyage (T1), on the first day of the voyage (T2), on the last day of the voyage (T3), and 4-5 months after voyage completion (T4). SE and gender prejudice of non-voyage participants was only measured at the first time point. Voyage participants experienced increases in SE and decreases in gender prejudice from T2 to T3, and not from T1 to T2. SE levels remained constant from T3 to T4, indicating persistence of these changes over time.
The sample in the third study (n=153) was 48% female, and ages ranged from 14 to 18 for the voyage participants (n=100) and 15 to 18 for the control group (n=53). In this study, SE was measured in both groups at all four time points. Attitudes towards drug and alcohol use (behavioral willingness and behavioral intention), physical and verbal aggression, and racial and gender bias were assessed in the voyage participant group at all four time points. Scales used to assess these outcomes were taken from other research studies and displayed validity and reliability. Like in the second study, SE increased in voyage participants from T2 to T3, and no changes occurred from T1 to T2 or T3 to T4. In the control group, there were no significant changes in SE between any time points. Participants did not show any increases in verbal or physical aggression or risky attitudes toward drug or alcohol use throughout the course of the study. There were no effects on racial or gender bias, and participants did not exhibit these biases at any time point.
These three studies provide evidence to support that participation in a ten-day sailing voyage can increase SE in adolescents, increased self-esteem can be sustained over time, and self-esteem can be increased without an increase in negative outcomes. All three studies show an increase in self-esteem among the voyage participants and a measurable decrease in gender bias. The third study added the finding that there was no increase in the negative outcomes that were measured.
These studies were carefully designed and add considerable evidence to the value of sail-training voyages on SE in adolescents.
Research Partner